The Lion as Symbol in Art

The lion has been a symbol in art since the origins of artistic representation have been documented (in pre-historic cave drawings to the later representation of the lion on city walls, coins, and household items such as vases and plates).   The lion in present day art realms is a symbol of strength and power[1].   The lion in more distant times was concurrent with these themes.   In order for a clear representation of the lion to be presented a look into its past dealing with art must be expounded.   Since artist draw the world around them, it must be inferred that in ancient Iran the lion was a prevalent animal and the artists of the time saw its powerful capabilities and associated that power with their own kings.   However, the lion is not a solitarily presented animal; it has other animal counter-parts such as the bull[2], the snake, the camel, the deer, etc.   In order for a precise discussion of the lion to be represented, these counterparts must also be included.T hese animals are the prey for the lion.   The lion show dominance over the above-mentioned animals, and in artistic representations of this battle, the viewer may infer the artist’s intention by how the lion is depicted, but first, some history about the lion in art,A study of the iconographies on vaes, seals, etc., from the earliest settlements of the Persian, Elamite and Mesopotamien area throughout the ages down to the Assyrian, Achaemenian and Seleucid periods, reeals a perfectly astrounding continuity of tradition in regard to a considerable part of the contellations, such as they were eventually transmitted to the Greeks.   That those uncounted reprentations of bulls, lions, scorpions and other figures, such ast he seven-headed hydra under the lion or the god with streams floating from his shoulders, are meant to be constellations, is in most cases clearly indicated by star symbols or by typical combinations and confrontations of two or more such astronomical elemen ts, or else by other typical concomitant motifs.  Ã‚   (Hartner The Conquering Lion 1964, 162).Thus, the lion was attributed to natural scenes found around the artist.   Since stars were such a dramatic and essential part of agrarian culture, it is not so far-fetched to believe that these artistic peoples placed the lion (a dominant figure in their own society both feared and revered) in the sky as a symbol, along with other animals (bull, bird, deer, etc.).   The calendar was instrumental in the daily lives of these people because it told them when certain seasons would arrive, when to plant crops, etc. and so, they continuously looked toward the skies for knowledge and inspiration:   In order to fully understand what they saw they gave common day items constellations by which to know the sky and by extension the season.   The Greeks or the Hellenistic calendar[3] as well as the Hispano-Islamic calendar[4] the solar year was understood and remembered.   Therefore, const ellations that are known today referred to as Leo, Taurus, etc, had their roots in ancient times.There was a symbolic and veritable battle taking place in the heavens for each of these cultures with their constellations.   As such, the two prominent constellations were Leo and Taurus.   They were in opposition to each other even in 4000 B.C.In the first half of February (counting according to the Gregorian Calendar), the constellations called later the â€Å"Hired Laborer† and the ‘plow’ had their heliacal rising and thereby indicated the time for Spring plowing, harrowing and sowing.   Just during this period, on February 10, the Pleiades, i.e. the leading star group of the Bull, Taurus, had their heliacal setting, i.e. were seen for the last time in the course of the year, to remain invisible (because in conjunction with the Sun) until, after 20 days, they rose again (heliacal rising), to indicate Spring equinox.   Now at the very moment of the Pleiades ’ heliacal setting (February 10, 4000 B.C.), the constellation of   Leo, standing 90 degrees apart, at the Persepolis or Ur occupies exactly the zenith, the â€Å"Royal Star†, Regulus-sarru, culminating at ca. 8 degrees distance from the zenith point.   (Hartner, 163).The significance in ancient culture of the above event was that it was interpreted as the victory of the lion over the bull.   The constellation Leo is at its apex during this time and is directly above the observer’s head and in its full spectrum of power.   It then is symbolic in this position has having killed the bull who has been escaping its equinox below the horizon to ‘hide behind the sun’s rays’.   After the lapsed time of 40 days will the constellation Taurus reappear and gain strength will the constellation Leo diminishes and set[5].   This is the classic Lion-Bull combat and can be seen in a plethora of paintings from this time to present art.   (Hartne r (163).As the Lion-Bull combat is dominant in Iranian art, especially with the lion as the victor is it imperative to juxtapose the lion with regality.   As such, one artistically representation piece that incorporates the beast is found on the cloak of Roger the second.   This cloak was created in Palermo around 528 H./A.D.   The cloak has an Arabic inscription that reads that the intention of the cloak is made for precise use for the treasury of the ‘Sicilian capital’ (Hartner 164).   Thus, the symbolic language of the cloak highlights the significance of the lion as representation of power , as Hartner states, â€Å"Indeed, the recent conquest of and rule over an Arab land, as well as Roger’s concern for the conversion of the ‘Saracens’, could not be better expressed than by the age-old motif of the lion slaying a big but weaker animal.   In this case, the latter was appropriately given in the shape of a camel† (164).The expressi on of the cloak is that of triumph over conquests and glory in those triumphs.   Not only is the lion in representation of royalty but also of military prowess.   In battle with different animals (snake, gazelle, bird, as the lion has often been represented slaying) the lion is victorious.   In cultural context, the lion’s symbols remain constant.   In Islam, for instance, the Great Mosque of Amid there is an archway that is framed on either side by the Lion-Bull motif.   These figures are excellently sculpted and juxtapose each other in a mirror image.   These figures were aesthetic by design but they also had political undertonesThe double scenes of the lion overcoming a bull would, according to van Berchem’s ingenious hypothesis, signify the tyrannical power exercised by the Nisanid over the Inalids; this assumption—and in particular the identification of the Inalid amir with a bull—is supported by another symbolic representation close to a n inscription on the city’s Aleepo Gate of 579 †¦Here the conqueror of the Inalids and of Diyarbakr, the Artuqid Muhammad, represents his victory by means of the emblem of a bird of prey over a bull’s head, which would again represent the same dynasty†¦(but the lion)should be regarded as a symbol of secular power. (Hartner, 166).In the early sixth and seventh centuries the lion stands out as a central motif.   The lion is a political symbol representing the power of one kingdom over another.   The lion essentially is a symbol of great power.   This is represented in the enameled dish of the Artuqid Dawud b. Sukman b. Artuq of Hisn-Kaifa[6] which has a classic lion motif.   The lion is pictured in the dish with a deer in the upper right.   There are other animals pictured on the dish as well, all quadrupeds or birds.   These animals are dominant over weaker animals (the birds of prey are more powerful that is) just as the lion overtakes the deer, s o do the birds reflect this predator/prey balance.   The central figure on the dish is Alexander the Great, ‘that is the apotheosis of the archetype of world ruler† (Hartner 166), so, the dish adequately represents the power symbol in the animal kingdom with the figure of one of the greatest rulers.The lion and the bull are prevalent in a power struggle throughout out, and the lion remains the victor of this battle.   Another prime example of this symbol can be witnessed on the gate of the citadel of Diyarbakr.   This symbol is associated with ancient Islam, as it existed in abundance in the art found in Umayyad near Jericho.   Here, there is mosaic dà ©cor that emphasizes the lion.   In the bathhouse in the palace, there is a mosaic room that is nonrepresentational and is mainly filled with geometric shapes, which was the aesthetic of the times, however, on the raised apse, where most likely the lord of the palace resided while in attendance is the mosaic sce ne of a lion and gazelles.This is a very naturalistic representation and more than likely the artist rendered it in accordance to true scenes found outside the palace.   The way in which this scene is compiled is reminiscent of Byzantine or Roman art.   The lion being incorporated onto the apse was not the only representation of power, but in the placement of the lion on the chair of the power figure of the palace is where strength could also be symbolized, as Hartner states, â€Å"This is underlined by the fact that the stucco figure of a ruler on the ceremonial gateway to the bath house complex is standing on two lions so that in this milieu the ion obviously had a royal connotation.   On the other hand, there has been found at Antioch a sixth-century mosaic frieze in which, on either side of trees, a wild beast is always juxtaposed to a tame animal†¦renders the older concept of uncompromising rule by the paramount power† (167).The lion as a symbol carried into o ther art forms as well such as the textile print based on the concepts of the lion permeated by the Sasanian era.   The silk depicts two hunters on horses with wings while in the foreground is a field of lions.   The lions are roaring in a berserk fashion.   Each rider is simultaneously holding up a lion cub.   The unique factor on the silk textile is that neither hunter holds a solitary weapon.   The figures then are representational of kings since they are surrounded with regal animals (not only the lions and cubs but also an eagle in the background) and their power can be seen in the fact that they do not have any weapons but rely on inner strength to hold the cubs.The Sasanian era is a plethora of lions being represented in art.   Assyrians were great supporters of the idea of lions as the king of the jungle and related this fact in artistic forms of their own kings or in art pieces were they wished to connote power,Assyrians regarded lions much like human enemies an d were thus eager to have their triumphs over them faithfully rendered; the image of the royal beast was then transformed into the conqueror himself, which meant that the kings identified themselves with the lion, be it in the metaphorical language of the historical accounts or visually, in the form or a royal emblem.   In this manner, the lion was shown in the act of triumph over the mighty bull, as we see it on the Boston disc[7].   Here the symbolic character appears quite evident from the fact that the ferocious lion looms so much larger than the less vitally rendered bovine animal, as it represented the point of view of patron and artist.   Such usage explains also why this motif occurs, for instance, as a design on the embroidered tunic of the ninth-century King Assurnasirpal (Hartner 168).The lion bull combat then is depicted as a regal power struggle with the lion being the victor.   This can be seen not only in the fact that the lion is, and has been the symbol of p ower but also in the way in which the battle is placed in relation to other objects (as was demonstrated on the apse and the picture of the owner atop two other lions, which showed dominance) as can be demonstrated by the great Apadana staircases.   Although the symbolism of royalty is not directed connoted with the lion, the juxtaposition of the relief can be found next to   an inscription by Xerxes which states, â€Å"of this wide, far-stretching earth† which is in reference to his celestial appointment.   (Hartner 169).The lion was also once on the flag representing Iran with the lion in front of the sun[8] and a sword in its grip.   The Iranians then have a prominent history involving the lion which seems to be a source unto itself as a symbol of kingly strength, as Hartner infers,At this point it is appropriate to indicate that a comparison of the Achaemenid reliefs with the earlier Assyrian version reveals that the Iranians had made great progress in perfecting the design.   While originally the symbolic situation necessitated the sharp contrast between a large, dynamic, and realistically rendered lion and a smaller, more inert and stylized bull, the actual relationship between the two animals is vague and remains artistically unresolved (169).The lion then becomes allegory in Iranian art, not only as it has been depicted in the past but as it is being represented in modern Iran as well.   Albeit, the lion has become more realistically draw in scale with the bull, so that the dominance of this beast over the lesser and inadequately equipped for battle quadruped, is exerted as an even more astounding display of heroics, dominance and strength.   Since the smaller lion is capable of defeating the more enormous bull, the association of a king with such allegory is representation of the king, though with lesser forces, can defeat his enemy who has many.Work CitedAdams, Liliana Osses.   (2003).   Sumerian Harps from Ur.   (Online).à ‚   Available:http://www.zwoje-scrolls.com/zwoje35/text11p.htm.Dorfles, Gillo.   (March 1957).   Communication and Symbol in the Work of Art.   TheJournal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.   Vol. 15, No. 3.   pp.   289-297.Hartner, Willy.   (December 31, 1964).   The Conquering Lion, the Life Cycle of a Symbol.Oriens, Vol. 17.   pp.   161-171.Janson, H.W. & Anthony F. Janson.   (1997).   History of Art.   Fifth Edition Revised.   PrenticeHall, Inc., and Harry Abrams, Inc., Publishers.   New York.[1] The epic of Gilgamesh derives from Mesopotamian culture (Adams 2003) involving a super-human man, two-thirds god and one-third human.   Thus, the theme of the lion with human qualities or humans with super-human qualities likened to animals is not strictly found in Iran.   In the translated stone tablets that exist of the story Gilgamesh is king of Uruk in Babylonia, which is located today in modern Iraq.   The story, historically, takes place approxima tely 2700 B.C. however; the story itself was only orally passed between audiences until being written in cuneiform in 2000 B.C..[2] The bull did not reside in the culture of Iran alone but throughout the Middle East.   As Gilgamesh was given as an example prior, the bull is found in this story as well with Gilgamesh conquering the bull as depicted on the Lyre found in the British museum of London. This Lyre stresses the importance of music in Uruk as well as in Mesopotamia.   The pictorial representations of Gilgamesh on the lyre are very elaborate and innovative.   The image of the bull is greatly utilized in Mesopotamian art and on the Harp or Lyre of Ur at the British Museum the animalistic traits and images is no different.   The significance of the bull on the harp is that Gilgamesh slew the sacred bull at the walls of the Ishtar Temple.   The harp was then reputedly clothes in garments of gold and adorned with horns and thenGilgamesh dedicated it to his father [3] Fr om 200 B.C. but Ptolemy is attributed with making a calendar as early as 150 A.D. [4] from the 10th century. [5] Not only is the Lion-Bull combat well-known and represented in art, but there is also the Lion-Deer combat that also has its settings with the stars, and will discussed later in the thesis.[6] This period is between 508 and 538, and the dish being discussed is thought to have been created by a Persian-speaking craftsman who may have leaved around Iran or in Central Asia in general. [7] The Boston disc being referenced is that found in Khorsabad which is supposedly the shield that had belonged to the Assyrian King Sargon the second. [8] The sun is a symbol of eternal life, as is the lion.   The sun represents fertility since in agrarian culture it made plants grow.   The sun is a duality just as much as the lion is one because while the sun is impressive in its scope of aiding in growth it can also be deadly as in times of draught.

Different Types of Chronic Bronchitis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Different Types of Chronic Bronchitis - Essay Example Chronic bronchitis can easily be prevented by not smoking and avoiding second-hand smoke, as well as pollutants such as too much dust. Many argue that the recurrent incidences of acute bronchitis can most definitely lead to the development of chronic bronchitis. Methods of treatment include the use of steroids and bronchodilators, as well as PDE4 inhibitors. Alternative treatments include antibiotics, pulmonary rehabilitation, supplemental oxygen therapy, home remedies and over-the-counter cough suppressants.   According to the Marshall Cavendish Corporation, â€Å"bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchi, the main airways in the lungs† (2008, p. 128). Bronchitis can be acute or chronic. Chronic bronchitis is one of the major forms of COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease). It is more serious than acute bronchitis. According to Arcangelo and Peterson (2006) â€Å"chronic bronchitis is a productive cough and sputum production for 3 months per year for at least 2 years, and an acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis is defined as worsening of respiratory symptoms such as a cough, sputum, and dyspnea† (p. 327).   Arcangelo and Peterson (2006) add that chronic bronchitis may be caused by a number of abnormalities of the bronchial mucosa. Chronic bronchitis patients are vulnerable to respiratory infections. This is due to the irritating substances they inhale and due to the fact that the substances are chronic, they lead to impaired mucociliary clearance. As nonciliated metaplastic cells replace ciliated epithelium and the mucous secreting goblet cells become proliferated, the result is impaired mucociliary clearance (Arcangelo & Peterson, 2006).

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Diversity Considerations Essay Example for Free

Diversity Considerations Essay Introduction This paper will analyze the influence of culture on attitudes, values, perception, human behavior, and interpersonal relations. The discriminatory factors that promote societal, political, socioeconomic, and spiritual oppression of culturally diverse populations will be described within this paper. Racial and cultural diversity within non-native English-speaking communities will be examined. Furthermore, this paper will also analyze how current research may positively impact the delivery of public safety and enhance the evaluation of information and resources. Lastly the chosen articles used for this paper will be evaluated on their reliability and credibility. Diversity Considerations The different cultures and lifestyles that surround us are the major factors that affect and influence behavior in all societies. Culture is the way we are brought up and the beliefs, values and attitudes that are instilled in us by our parents and or guardians. Society also instills culture in us and how we are educated and trained throughout life. We are trained in school and within our homes; we are taught different lifestyles through whom we interact with and the environment in which we grow up in and the conditions and situations we are used to. As a child one tends to follow the life he or she is familiar with. Children look up to their parents, teachers, or any influential person in their life to help shape their thoughts, values and beliefs. For example, if one grows up in a negative environment then that individual will more than likely adopt those types of influences throughout their life and will view life in a negative manner. Their thoughts and beliefs and relationships with others in life will be negative. The opposition would be someone brought up in a positive environment will more than likely view life in a positive manner. If one is brought up to respect others and to be courteous to others, he will more than likely continue these habits throughout life. However, if one is brought up to be prejudiced against those who differ or believe it is acceptable to lie or steal then he or she will probably live by these standards. There are many discriminatory factors which promote societal, socioeconomic, and spiritual oppression of culturally diverse populations. First understanding how discrimination is categorized is important. According to Ore, (2011) employing a systemic frame of analysis requires that we redefine the ways we categorize issues of discrimination. Ore (2011) defines prejudice as a negative attitude toward members of a group or social category and discrimination as the unequal treatment of people determined by their membership in a group. Resources such as money, property, medical care and education can be impacted by systems of oppression and privilege. Resources are not equal to all and many are limited. The distribution of resources to a particular member of society is based on his or her status. Ones social class is one of the most powerful predictors of health. The higher someone is on the socioeconomic ladder the lower their risk is for poor health (Ore, 2011). The identification of disasters as purely physical occurrences (typhoons, floods, earthquakes and initially also bombings and explosions) that affect people who have the misfortunate to be simply in the wrong place at the wrong time gave rise to a preoccupation with technological solutions for the protection of infrastructure and exposed populations ( Bankoff, 2004). Many times the outcome of a situation will be dependent on ones status within the community or membership in a group. Racial and cultural diversity within non-native English-speaking communities exist throughout the country. According to the U.S. Department of Education (2005), there are approximately 56 million students and 3.3 million teachers in our K-12 classrooms. Half the school aged population is expected to consist of students of color by the year 2020. It is estimated that more than 1 in 7 children aged 5 to 17 speak a language other than English at home. By 2026, the number of non-native English speaking students will reach 15 million (Carjuzza, 2005). Multiculturalism relates to communities containing multiple cultures. Multiculturalism exists throughout the nation, communities, schools, businesses and neighborhoods in which we live in. Multiculturalism refers to ideologies or policies that encourage diversity. It allows for one to express one’s own identity. The interaction and communication between different cultures provides opportunity for all. Interactions of cultures provide opportunities for the cultural differences and to create multiculturalism. America is the place where individuals of different ethnicities, cultures and races come to be treated fairly (equal opportunity). However language can be a major barrier and affects all races regardless of acceptance. Smaller communities seem to encompass stronger values beliefs and customs, therefore leaving no room for acceptance of others and languages. Putnam, (2007) states, â€Å"As we have more contact with people who are unlike us, we overcome our initial hesitation and ignorance and come to trust them more.† This could be possible and could be a way to integrate diversity and create multiculturalism. Regardless of race, culture, age, disabilities or the language in which we speak, we are all created equal. Those who migrate here to America and want shared citizenship and outreach towards other cultures and ethnicities is something that will take a long time to be accepted, for several reasons, language being one main reason. Individuals that do not speak English and move into communities where English is the dominant language, are not easily accepted into these communities. There are many ways to try and resolve differences in regards to diversity; however ignorance to one’s culture, ethnicity, beliefs etc. plays a major role in racial and cultural diversity throughout the country. Current research may positively impact the delivery of public safety and enhance the evaluation of information and resources if conducted in a positive and open manner. Research must be available and include all current socioeconomic groups. However research must be honest and reliable and available to those in need of it in order to assist with issues in the public safety sector. Research must also include the members of the affected communities in which the research or data was collected on. . Also, the sharing of the research is critical and should only be shared with those authorized. Policies for conducting and sharing the research must be developed and implemented in order to avoid the research and data being altered or shared with the wrong individuals. Accurate crime data serve important purposes. It is used by public agencies and officials in determining policies, budgets, legislation, funding priorities, and evaluation of existing programs. In conclusion, it is up to the adults in a child’s life to set a good example and instill good values in their children. Society in general has a responsibility to assist with poverty and crime within their communities whenever possible. As individuals we all act and behave in a manner at different times and places. One may not have the same behavior or personality at home as he/she would at work. Whether it is a child, teenager or adults we all have our own personality, values, beliefs and cultures, therefore social influences can alter and shape our actions, speech and who we are and how we are perceived within our communities and society in general. Attitude or a persons belief about a certain situation or perception can influence behaviors. Social influences can affect behavior by simply changing attitudes. This can be a positive change, such as opening a closed-minded individuals beliefs to include new beliefs and choices. On the contrary social influences on attitudes can be negative and include destructive or forcible perceptions leading to poor choices and or criminal behavior. References Bankoff, G. (2004). International journal of mass emergencies and disaster. Time is of the Essence:Disasters, Vulnerability and History. 22(3) 23-42 International Journal of Diversity in Organizations, Communities and Nations, 7(5) 153-160. Retrieved January 16, 2013 from http://www.ehow.com/info_8510709_social-influences- human-behavior Putnam, R. D., (2007). E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century: The 2006 Johan Skytte prize lecture. Journal Compilation, Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2) 137-174 Ore, T.E. (2011). The social construction of difference inequality: Race, class, gender, and sexuality, fifth edition, New York: McGraw-Hill. Cumbersome